[Coursework Essay 2017]: How Does Ingmar Bergman Convey a Character’s Psyche and Build Atmosphere in Persona?

The following is an edited version of one of my pieces of written coursework from my undergraduate university studies. I have posted it here alongside my later works for the purpose of showing the development of my academic research and writing skills.

I wrote and submitted the original version of this essay for university coursework in 2017.

INTRODUCTION

Persona (Bergman, 1966) is an experimental arthouse drama film that Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman wrote, produced, and directed at the time of his experimentation with modernist filmmaking techniques. A key aim of this stylistically nuanced film is to create an intense and surreal atmosphere that reflects the intricate and profound psychological experiences of its two lead characters. The effect of Bergman’s stylistic choices is one of ambivalence about the intended meaning of the film, due to the emphasis on emotional expression and exploring the subjective mental states of its two lead characters. The techniques that are of the most significance to the film’s effectiveness manifest in the areas of the film’s art direction, cinematography, editing, and storytelling. The reasons for these choices, and how they contribute to the significance of the film, derive from the conventions of art cinema, Bergman’s self-expression, and the innovations of modernism. The scenes that depict the characters’ psychological states and build a surreal atmosphere are Alma’s confession about her abortion (00:33:41), the famous “breakdown” of the film’s central action into a disturbing montage (00:47:05), and the merging of the two main character’s faces (01:14:20).

FRAMEWORKS OF REFERENCE

Historical Context

To discern why Bergman made the choices that contribute to Persona’s intended effect, it is important to place the film within its proper historical context, keeping in mind the fact that Bergman made the film during the period of established modernism in European art cinema from the 1960s. A key characteristic of this movement was the aim to distinguish its films stylistically from the conventions and expectations of Hollywood cinema. Persona epitomises this modernist trend and “largely contributed to the closed-situation minimalist form of the middle period representing the expressive version of this form” (Kovács, 2007, p. 336). Bergman’s expressive techniques are a rejection of classical filmmaking traditions; they create a sense of ambivalence and logical dissonance that reflect the emotional and psychological complexity of its two main characters: Nurse Alma and Elisabeth Vogler.

The subordination of objective clarity and logic is a choice that distinguishes the film as innovative and modernist. This desire to differentiate the style of the film from the aesthetic techniques of classical cinema justifies Bergman’s use of dream sequences and flashbacks to deviate from the storytelling in favour of expressing the inner thoughts of the characters. Aspects of the film’s approach to scriptwriting, for instance, such as the narrative setting and structure, are examples of the modernist trend of “closed-situation minimalism” (Kovács, 2007, p. 113), whereas other aspects, such as the characterisation and specific plot points, represent the expressive variation on this trend. Additionally, the central focus on the interactions between Alma and Elisabeth, and the emphasis on their psychological states is the primary reason for Bergman’s decision to set the main events of the film in a “closed-situation” setting.

Authorship

Authorship is a highly informative lens through which to interpret Persona. From a production standpoint, the film continues Bergman’s trend of frequent collaborators, such as the casting of Bibi Andersson as part of the main cast; Andersson had performed in many of Bergan’s films prior to Persona, including Wild Strawberries (Bergman, 1957), The Magician (Bergman, 1958), and The Devil’s Eye (Bergman, 1960). Furthermore, the cinematographer who worked on Persona was Sven Nykvist, who worked on Through a Glass Darkly (Bergman, 1961) and The Silence (Bergman, 1963); the editor of Persona was Ulla Ryghe, who edited Winter Light (Bergman, 1963) and All These Women (Bergman, 1964). Aspects of the cinematography in Persona, which are also present in earlier films from the Bergman canon, include the use of high angle close-ups that draw attention to the emotions of the character that is on-screen, and expressive, unrealistic lighting that adds a ghostly appearance to the subject and creates an intense atmosphere.

In terms of the film’s editing techniques, Bergman’s trademark long takes are maintained and juxtaposed in the edit, thus slowing the pace of the film and allowing the atmosphere to build gradually, enhancing its intended effect. Considering some of the more general authorial trademarks, Persona uses many of the motifs that recur in Bergman’s films, such as the symbolic use of religious iconography and vast, open landscapes that reflect a character’s mental state. Near the midpoint of the film, the plot gives way to an expressive sequence that includes the nailing of a man’s hand to a wooden surface, mirroring the crucifixion of Christ; an example of religious symbolism representing the theme of death. Throughout the film, the serene yet uneven landscape of the rocky seaside reflects the incrementally unstable relationship between Alma and Elisabeth. Persona continues Bergman’s authorial trend of using these atmospheric, environmental, and religious motifs in his films.

Genre

The majority of popular resources on film information, including the Internet Movie Database, typically categorise Persona as a film in the drama genre (Internet Movie Database, no date). However, this is too nebulous a label to offer an insightful analysis of the film in terms of form and conventions; “drama” tells us very little about a film’s narrative codes and conventions or style. To place Persona within the framework of genre, it is far more useful to do so as an art film and according to film theorist David Bordwell’s argument that art cinema is “a distinct mode of film practice, possessing […] a set of formal conventions, and implicit viewing procedures” (Bordwell, 1979, p. 716). The film’s relationship with the “arthouse genre” relies heavily on its historical context, considering that European art cinema contemporary to Persona often defied the conventions of classical Hollywood cinema. Modernism, the movement to which Persona belongs in a historical context, embodies the zenith of the European arthouse film that specifically challenges the expectations of mainstream cinema.

Bergman’s film features the essential traits of both the period of established modernism and the arthouse genre, particularly because of its experimental approach and the ambivalence of its intended meaning. As with the frameworks of authorship and historical context, the framework of genre justifies Bergman’s approach to style. In this case, the distinguishing formal attributes of art cinema explain Persona’s rejection of the rigidity that often characterises the three-act structure of a classical narrative film, as well as the mainstream notion of clarity in the film’s interpretation. While Persona follows the art cinema principles of realism and authorial expressivity (Bordwell, 1979, p. 718), the realistic element comes exclusively from the psychological complexity of its two lead characters, whereas the majority of the film follows a primarily expressive style.

KEY AREAS

Storytelling

Considering that Bergman wrote, produced, and directed Persona, it is a logical conclusion that since Bergman had so much creative control (the auteur, as it were,) the choices involved in the production of the film are primarily the result of his vision, particularly the narrative style. The three scenes that are the most relevant to identifying the stylistic traits of Persona are the scene in which Alma confesses to Elisabeth that she had an abortion (00:33:41); the expressive sequence that occurs at the midpoint and interrupts with a sudden “breakdown” of the film (00:47:05); and the sequence in which shadows cover Alma and Elisabeth’s faces halfway (01:06:44 – 01:14:19), and the ultimate shot of the faces converging (01:14:20). In analysing the storytelling aspect of the film, while it is ultimately expressive, the approach to the scriptwriting style also bears certain minimalist traits. A key minimalist aspect is the setting of the plot: the majority of the action takes place in a cottage on the seaside, an example of what film critic András Bálint Kovács would describe as a “closed-situation” setting (Kovács, 2007, p. 113).

The structure of the film also has elements of minimalism because although there is a plot set-up at the beginning of the film, big narrative arcs and an adherence to cause and effect matter less to the film than focussing on the interactions between the two central characters. The characterisation is an element of Persona’s approach to storytelling that is more indicative of an expressive style, due to the frequent emphasis on the emotions of Alma and Elisabeth, and the psychological depth of their interactions. Additionally, there are specific plot points in the film that are expressive: the scene where Alma tells Elisabeth about her abortion (00:33:41) slows down the plot to focus on the subjective experiences of the character, namely her sincere feelings of confusion and remorse. Furthermore, the flashback that depicts Elisabeth’s backstory, in which she falls silent on stage (00:07:39), is more concerned with expressing the character’s inner turmoil than offering objective information about the plot.

The scene in which Alma regretfully confesses to Elisabeth about her abortion (00:33:41) signifies one of Bergman’s more specific authorial trademarks: “Motherhood and the maternal are often the key characteristics of women in Bergman’s world, starting with his early [So Close to Life] (Bergman, 1958)” (Elsaesser, 2014). In terms of authorship, Bergman’s interest in female experiences such as maternity explains his choice that the two central characters of Persona are women. Bergman puts the focus of the scene on Alma’s psychological state by having the character explain the events through dialogue in conjunction with her emotional reaction to the memory. In terms of historical context, the scene epitomises Kovács’ definition of a “closed-situation” minimalist form of the modernist movement:

The specificity of modern closed-situation drama […] is to build up a narrative originated by the situation of isolation itself. The characters do not necessarily reflect on the fact of isolation, but their reactions to each other are a result of that situation it could not be provoked otherwise (Kovács, 2007, pp. 112-113).

The silence and isolation are what put Alma in such a psychological position that she would be emotionally vulnerable enough to reveal such intimate details about herself, specifically her feeling of shame recollecting her abortion. The use of the limited space to elicit emotion makes the scene a prime example of the modernist “closed-situation” narrative. The scene utilises some of the formal techniques that are conventional in the arthouse genre. The camera is static, and the shot lasts one minute and twenty-two seconds, and both techniques are for the purposes of building atmosphere and presenting ‘“realistic” – that is, psychologically complex – characters’ (Bordwell, 1979, p. 718).

Although the confession scene begins with simple exposition and Alma verbally explaining her backstory, it suddenly becomes a scene that is conventional of the arthouse genre from the point when she sobs, “It doesn’t make any sense. None of it fits together.” What makes this conventional of the arthouse genre is not only the emotional and psychological complexity on display but also the minimalist approach to depicting the “closed-situation” drama of the experimental modernist movement (Kovács, 2007, p. 336); a minimalist attribute being more usual for art cinema. Alma’s lamentation of her abortion, in conjunction with the melancholy setting, once again relates (albeit tenuously) to the film’s theme of death; Alma’s guilt seems to stem from her belief that, as a result of her decision, the hypothetical child she would have conceived was never conceived – in her mind, it was terminated and denied a life.

As per the film’s intentions, there is a certain level of ambivalence to the interpretation of this scene. Because the theme of abortion is treated with such brevity by the script and expressed with such potent regret by the actress/character, a politically conservative and/or fundamentally religious viewer may be inclined to interpret it as a pro-life message. On the other hand, Bergman also gives Alma an understandable reason for her abortion, i.e. she did not feel ready for the responsibility of parenthood. The nuance this adds to the film’s theme of abortion provides a more realistic depiction of the issues with maternity and motherhood, in keeping with Bergman’s trademark motif of dealing with the female experience (Elsaesser, 2014). Beyond narrative context, the dialogue of the scene also refers to the film’s symbolic ambivalence, a trait that is typical of the arthouse genre; the line, “It doesn’t make any sense. None of it fits together […]” alludes to the intentional lack of clarity and logic in the film’s approach to storytelling.

Art Direction

Many of the expressive qualities of Persona are present in the film’s art direction. The limited space of the setting creates drama and fuels the emotional tension between Alma and Elisabeth; the two lead characters spend the majority of the film’s runtime in a single enclosed environment, with no other people with whom to interact besides each other. The mise-en-scène has aspects of both an expressive and a minimalist approach: it has only the elements that are the most necessary to any given scene, which signifies a minimalist technique; however, the fact that the film uses the confined space as a catalyst for generating conflict gives the set an emotional quality, which is a more expressive element. The key example of both expressive and minimalist mise-en-scène is the scene of Alma’s confession (00:33:41), due to the scarce detail and the tension that results from the limited space.

Another highly expressive quality of the film’s art direction is the use of the costumes, which draw attention to themselves as they symbolise the psychological states of the characters. When Alma and Elisabeth arrive at the seaside cottage early in the film (00:23:38), both characters wear white while there is harmony between them; later, however, when Alma angrily confronts Elisabeth about the letter she discovered (00:49:40), both characters now wear black. So, the costuming reflects the psychological states of the characters by using dark colours as tensions rise between them. As such, the purpose of the costume choices and the art direction is not to reproduce reality as it is, but to convey reality in the way that the characters experience it, making it appear more excessive than a realistic setting. The overall purpose of the costuming is to enhance the characterisation and the performances rather than upstage them.

In the sequence that leads up to the merging of Alma and Elisabeth’s faces (01:14:20), the former exposes the troubled backstory of the latter; a sequence that is repeated from the viewpoints of both characters (01:06:44 – 01:14:19). During the sequence, the women both wear black to symbolise the emotional tension between them. This expressive use of colours in the costuming signifies an authorial trademark, that is Bergman’s interest in the experiences of women, represented in this case by the mental states of Alma and Elisabeth. The way in which the scene fits the historical context of the film derives from its modernist propensity for distinguished formal and stylistic attributes; specifically, the use of costuming and colour to make a direct statement about the characters’ relationship and mental states. While this serves as an example of the formalist use of patterns and colours to convey information, it nevertheless matches the expressive aims of the film because the focus is primarily on emotion and psychology.

The way in which the scene follows the conventions of the arthouse genre derives from its use of the mise-en-scène to express the mental intricacy of the characters. The setting is minimalist, with very little detail about the location, since the purpose of the scene is the expression of their emotional states, rather than to distract the viewer with elaborate sets. The scene is expressive in its approach because it is concerned more with conveying the subjective thoughts of the characters, rather than the semantics of the specific components of the image, which would be more of a point of focus for a formalist style. The choice to use dark colours matches the film’s expressive intentions because it creates the effect of adding an intense atmosphere to the scene, which reflects the growing feelings of tension between Alma and Elisabeth.

The costuming and setting of the film are the aspects of its art direction that are the most relevant to its genre. Film author Maria San Filippo writes that the art cinema genre “so frustrates our ability to identify easily with characters that often we are prevented even from telling characters apart” (Filippo, 2010, p. 86). The costuming in Persona epitomises this trait, as is evident from the merging of Alma and Elisabeth’s faces (01:14:20), which instigates the amalgamation of their identities, and achieves full conviction with the identical costuming of both characters. By this point, it appears that the two women are the same, both physically and psychologically. This scene is the greatest evidence of the stylistic motivation for the costuming choices, which is to convey the mental states of the characters; in this case, the fact that Alma and Elisabeth’s identities are beginning to converge.

The proxemics of the scene in which Alma confesses her abortion (00:33:41), that is the close space between Alma and Elisabeth, is indicative of the limited space within the setting. Since the purpose of the enclosed environment is to create drama between the two characters, the claustrophobic effect justifies the proxemics of the scene. The purpose is to convey the psychological states of the characters, just as Alma exposes her profound inner guilt under the strain of the limited space. The way in which the setting relates to the arthouse genre is that it embodies the “closed-situation” narrative of the modernist movement in European art cinema of the 1960s. Furthermore, Alma’s verbal exposition and the lack of flashbacks are traits much more typical of a minimalist style than a mainstream classical one. The way in which the identical costuming and limited space contribute to the intended effect of the film is that, through subtle attributes, the costuming and setting provide an insight into the profound complexity of the character’s mental states.

Cinematography

The greatest evidence of the film’s expressive style is present in the cinematography by Sven Nykvist, which also utilises many of Bergman’s authorial trademarks. The camera techniques emphasise emotion, particularly the shot of Elisabeth lying on the hospital bed and staring at the ceiling (00:12:54), in which the high angle conveys the character’s feeling of weakness and vulnerability; a technique that occurs in several films that Bergman directed prior to Persona. Additionally, Nykvist uses clean shots of individual characters in close-up to focus the attention on their subjective experiences; Nykvist also combines the close-ups with wide-angle photography to emphasise the characters’ faces and accentuate their emotions, most notably in the scene in which Alma and Elisabeth’s faces converge (01:14:20). Furthermore, the film features Bergman’s trademark technique of deep staging and deep-focus photography (Cousins, 2011, p. 180), which emphasises the three-dimensional space and reflects the psychological depth of the film, particularly in the long shots of the seaside landscape (00:39:08).

The lighting in Persona is an aspect of the cinematography that reinforces the expressive approach to style. The use of singular diegetic lighting sources, e.g. the lamps in the bedroom, creates bright light that contrasts against the surrounding darkness in the setting of any given scene (00:28:12). These atmospheric lighting set-ups give the setting a dreamlike, ethereal quality as per the film’s intention to distort the boundaries between subjective fantasy and objective reality. During the sequence in which the shadows cover half of Alma and Elisabeth’s faces (01:06:44 – 01:14:19), this use of the lighting achieves a sense of duality and a dramatic shot that reflects the rising conflict between the two characters, whilst ultimately symbolising the convergence of the women’s identities as well as their faces. The cinematography of the film aims to produce images that are relevant to Bergman’s expressive intentions.

A prime example of the use of shadows to create atmosphere is the scene where Alma tells Elisabeth about her abortion (00:33:41). The darkness that surrounds the two women fills the setting with discomfort since the scarce amount of light that illuminates the faces also serves to compress and isolate them, whilst also making Alma appear diminished and vulnerable; a reflection of her increasingly fragile psyche. What makes the scene even more intense is the short distance of framing; the close-up not only creates a feeling of claustrophobia and emphasises the confined space, but it also says that Alma’s suffering is the most crucial element of the scene, thus intensifying her emotional turmoil. Considering the atmospheric lighting style and the tight shot scale, the image is subtly reminiscent of another European drama film, The Passion of Joan of Arc (Dreyer, 1928), which was similarly about depicting the profound emotional strife of its central female character. This intertextual reference is indicative of Persona’s firm connection to the arthouse genre.

An even more intense example of the film’s cinematography is the use of a medium close-up during the scene in which Alma and Elisabeth’s faces merge (01:14:20). In conjunction with the use of deep-focus photography to enhance the facial details, the close-up of the women’s merged faces emphasises both the significance of their fragmented psychological states and the profundity of their emotions. It is at this point that the expressive approach to the style of the film reaches its zenith, and the tight shot scale makes the atmosphere even more confrontational to reflect Alma’s deep feelings of anger and contempt. The motivation for Bergman’s decision, to place so much emphasis on Alma’s emotions in both scenes, derives from the authorial trademark that is his interest in the experiences of women. It is because Bergman wants to explore Alma’s emotional and psychological experiences that Nykvist uses such tight shots and expressive lighting in the shots that depict her subjective reactions.

To discern the reasons for the film’s specific use of cinematography, and the choices of the expressive images in the “breakdown” sequence (00:47:05), requires a deconstruction of the sequence within the framework of authorship, beginning with a consideration of the most important images and the ways in which Nykvist shoots each of them. The images that are of the greatest significance are the shot of Alma just before the image “burns up” into a white screen; the shot of the nail as it pierces the man’s hand; and the shot of the man’s eye at the very end of the sequence. All three of these images are close-ups, each one uses deep focus to emphasise the details, and each one has a tighter shot scale than the previous one; all of which becomes more significant in relation to what each image represents. The symbolic meaning of each image illuminates the director’s vision.

The “breakdown” occurs after Alma discovers the letter that changes her view of Elisabeth, signalling her emotional shift, and the close-up emphasises the psychological impact of said revelation. The authorial justification of this shot is, therefore, Bergman’s desire to explore the female experience and convey the psychological states of his characters. The shot of the nail going through the hand resembles the crucifixion, which represents the theme of death, and the medium close-up forces the viewer to confront the weight of human mortality, such as the perceived element of mortality that Alma emotionally imposes on the issue of her abortion that is prevalent in later scenes of the film. Nykvist’s use of such a tight shot in conjunction with such a shocking image corresponds with Bergman’s modernist propensity for expression and innovation. Finally, the shot of the eye symbolises the complexity of the human mind; if the human eye is a proverbial window into the soul, then the extreme close-up in this shot provides the viewer with a view of its profundity. Considering that Persona is an expressive film, this shot says that the film itself is a window into Bergman’s own perspective.

Editing

Ulla Ryghe’s editing of Persona takes a more nuanced approach to style, with elements that are both minimalist and formalist as well as expressive. An example of both a minimalist and expressive editing technique is the inclusion of long takes, including a tracking shot of Alma and Elisabeth walking hastily along the beach, which lasts fifty-four seconds (00:55:37 – 00:56:31). On one level, it is a minimalist shot due to the lack of cuts, which slows down the pace of the sequence. On another level, however, it is also an expressive shot because the slower pace matches the atmosphere and tone of the film by gradually building tension, which is one of the main goals of the film. Also, the movement of the camera along uneven ground conveys Alma’s nervous and unbalanced mental state during the scene. Examples of more formalist edits would be a jump cut that breaks the 180-degree rule near the beginning of the film (00:08:12), and the abrupt “breakdown” of the film into a rapid sequence of shocking images that occurs around the midpoint of the film (00:47:05).

These edits subvert any sense of continuity and logic, making the formal techniques of the film more noticeable, to make an intellectual statement on cinema itself. The line-crossing jump cut and the rapid “breakdown” sequence are Bergman’s modernist attempts to find new ways of conveying information about the characters; however, it also has traces of an expressive style because of the concern with the subjective emotions of the characters. The merging of Alma and Elisabeth’s faces (01:14:20) carries the poetic associations of a formalist editing style, essentially saying that the two women are now one and the same, but it is also an example of a more expressive editing technique because it conveys the unbalance of Alma’s mental state. The stylistic nuance of this shot reflects the modernist aim of the film, which is to express emotion by experimenting with formal elements.

Given that formalism seeks to experiment with cinematic conventions, the “breakdown” sequence (00:47:05) exhibits the stylistic essence both of a formalist style and of the modernist movement. The innovation that the sequence achieves is a distinctive method of conveying a tonal shift in the film: after the “breakdown” sequence, the conflict between the two characters is much higher than it was before, replacing the minimalism of the earlier scenes with an expressive and emotionally intense atmosphere. Through Ryghe’s modernist and innovative use of editing, the film begins anew, just as the sequence at the midpoint repeats some of the shocking images from the opening sequence of the film. In addition to this formalist attribute, however, the “breakdown” signifies an expressive approach that derives from Bergman’s authorial vision. The sequence indicates a sudden change in tone that mirrors the drastic change in Alma’s mental state and her newfound feeling of animosity. The motivation for this expressive technique is Bergman’s authorial desire to explore his characters’ emotional and psychological experiences.

Whereas Ryghe’s cutting of the sequence itself into the prior scene represents the formalist objective, to make an intellectual statement on cinematic form, the placement of the sequence in relation to the character’s emotional reaction indicates the more expressive objective, to convey the director’s interest in the female experience. The way in which the “breakdown” is identifiable in relation to the arthouse genre is the ambivalence of its meaning. Art cinema typically offers concepts and images to which there is no singular, objective interpretation. Beyond conveying the change in Alma’s psychological state, the abstract complexity of the sequence renders the symbolic meaning of its images ambiguous. The sequence proves that as an arthouse film, Persona emphasises the significance of innovation and expression over the objective clarity and logic that mainstream viewers would be expected of a conventional, classical approach to film style.

The experimental aims of the modernist movement are the primary motivation for the sequence in which the film “breaks down” into a rapid series of shocking images. Film historian Thomas Elsaesser writes that the film’s motif of proverbial masks, such as the “mask” of make-up Elisabeth wears on the stage and the “mask” of silence she wears in Alma’s presence, that hides her inner self; the “persona” of the title referring to the false appearances that these “masks” create (Elsaesser, 2014). That being the case, the “breakdown” of the film is reflective of Persona’s entire thesis; the editing choice symbolises a revelation of the fundamental nature of cinema, just as the film is about the true essence of its two central characters. Elsaesser describes this innovative technique thusly:

Alma’s face cracks like glass and then burns up, a combustible film strip getting torn in the projector gate, consumed by flames […] indicative of the aggression inherent in the voyeuristic interest we project onto the action as spectators, to which the director responds with a certain sadism of his own, by suddenly reminding us of the nonhuman materiality of his film (Elsaesser, 2014).

The “breakdown” sequence is the zenith of Ryghe’s formalist approach to the film’s editing style and of Persona’s modernist aesthetic. The editing transcends cinematic convention to convey the intellectual statement that the film is about exposing the intricacy of the human mind. Beyond simply shocking the viewer with its abrupt interruption of the film, the sequence shifts the tone of the film from that of a minimalist drama to that of an existential journey into the complicated and troubled psyches of Alma and Elisabeth.

CONCLUSION

As an expressive and modernist arthouse film, the purpose of Persona is to build an intense and surreal atmosphere from the emotional and psychological experiences of its two lead characters. Ingmar Bergman achieves these aims using: narrative elements such as the profound themes of abortion and maternity, that convey his authorial interest in the female experience. Elements of art direction such as specific costuming whose identical colours reflect the convergence of Alma and Elisabeth’s identities, and confined settings whose limited space breeds tension between the two women. Elements of cinematography such as close-ups that emphasise the importance of the on-screen subject, and deep staging that accentuates details. Editing elements such as long takes that slow down the pace to allow tension to build, and formalist sequences that challenge cinematic conventions to convey the profound existential intricacy of the characters, and of the film itself. These choices force the viewer to confront the complicated intensities of human nature and make Persona an innovative and nuanced entry into the modernist Bergman canon.

FILMOGRAPHY

All These Women (1964) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Devil’s Eye, The (1960) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Magician, The (1958a) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Passion of Joan of Arc, The (1928) Directed by Carl Theodor Dreyer [Film]. France: Gaumont.

Persona (1966) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Silence, The (1963a) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

So Close to Life (1958b) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Through a Glass Darkly (1961) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Wild Strawberries (1957) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

Winter Light (1963b) Directed by Ingmar Bergman [Film]. Sweden: AB Svensk Filmindustri.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Cousins, M. (2011) Story of Film, The. 2nd edn. London: Pavilion.

Filippo, M. (2010) ‘Unthinking Heterocentrism: Bisexual Respresentability in Art Cinema’, in Galt, R. and Schoonover, K. (eds.) Global Art Cinema: New Theories and Histories. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.75-91.

Kovács, A. (2007) Screening Modernism: European Art Cinema, 1950-1980. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Journal Articles

Bordwell, D. (1979) ‘The Art Cinema as a Mode of Film Practice’, Film Criticism, 4(1), pp.56-64.

Web Pages

Elsaesser, T. (2014) The Criterion Collection. Available at: https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/3116-the-persistence-of-persona (Accessed: 1 December 2017).

Internet Movie Database (2017) Persona (1966). Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0060827/ (Accessed: 29 November 2017).